Constructivism in International Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Constructivism in International Relations - Essay Example The constructivist theory encourages that students be provided with inquiry-based learning activities as well as problem solving activities where students are able to formulate and test their ideas , draw their conclusions as well as inferences and convey their acquired knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism changes the student from an inactive recipient of information to an active partaker in the learning process. Learners will be continually trying to obtain their personal mental model of the actual world from their views of that world. Learners keep updating their own personal mental models to mirror the new acquired information which eventually enables them to create their own understanding of the reality. It is crucial that we create good learning environments that students will use as their platforms to be able to create new knowledge and experiences and these environments are referred to as Constructivist learning environments. This theory is importa nt for the study of international relations since it facilitates learning new information and adapting to change which is very common while relating with other countries internationally. A basic principle of the constructivist social theory is that people take action toward items or entities, on the foundation of the meanings that those entities or items have for them. In international relations for example, various states act differently towards their enemies because they are a threat to them while they also act differently. towards their friends who are an input to their states. Learning how to deal and adapt to various situations that a state is exposed to is thus very important and that is well implemented through the use of constructivist theory in learning International relations. Institutionalization refers to the process of internalizing new interests as well as identities which are occurring within their environment and affecting their behaviors. Example: UNESCO officials d eclared that science policymaking is essential and good; there was however no stern attempt to attest how true that was: "States should make it their business" to coordinate and direct science or, "The development of science policy should be the responsibility of an organization at the highest level of government in the country. Also "the Science Policy Programme of UNESCO is formulated on the basis of the principle that the planning of science policy is indispensable" for the promotion as well as coordination of scientific research. These statements are not attached with any evidence that such practical entities improve science competence. Science has a

Poorhouses in California Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Poorhouses in California - Essay Example Prior to reviewing the history and functioning of California’s poorhouses, the actual cause that led to the establishment of such facilities should be examined. In the earlier days, prior to the formation of poorhouses, paupers and destitute people within a community were cared for by providing relief through a caretaker and auctioning or contracting them with those who require their support or work (History of 19th Century American Poorhouses, n.d.). While is not clear as to when such poorhouses actually came into existence, a political code instituted in the year 1982 included a provision of care for the destitute and sick population within the country. This led to the establishment of several poorhouses within the country which were mostly tax-supported residential institutions. However, by the 19th century the United States adopted the system of Poorhouse establishment from England. This was seen as a more efficient and less expensive method to provide relief to paupers an d destitute in the country. Hence several such houses were created with the hope that housing paupers in institutions would provide an opportunity to reform their character or habits and help them overcome poverty and homelessness (History of the 19th Century American Poorhouses, n.d.). It was quite a challenge to collect information pertaining to the origins of poorhouses in California as by the time these institutions were established, it was politically incorrect to refer to these facilities with names that seemed derogatory. During the years 1930 and 1940, the Work Projects Administration (WPA) began an inventory process of the County Archives of several states. As early as 1850, the legislature made a provision that the Court of Sessions which later became the Board of Supervisors, should take care of the county welfare and provide all the

Gulf Cooperation Council Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gulf Cooperation Council - Essay Example Gulf Cooperation Council was started in 1981 by the leaders of the state of Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Oman, United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia (Rashid, 21). The purpose of the council was to promote and enhance close ties among the member states and by formulating strategies to ensure that non-GCC countries would not intimidate its members or attack them. As a result, the council engages in integration courses including peace campaigns in its member’s countries (23). The council intentions are more visible in its political activities including the diplomatic campaign to reduce tension between Oman and Yemen and to a whole range of efforts and initiatives to bring peace in Qatar, Yemen, Iraq, Iran as well as Oman. The council also helps in protection of the fundamental freedom of the citizens of its member states and stresses on the importance of GCC countries to take all the necessary measures to protect the citizens from their states. The GCC purpose towards Yemen is mainly on its deep concern for the Yemen situation and its continued condemns of the violence experienced in Yemen (Rashid 45)

Effects Of Bush’s Foreign Policies Essay Example for Free

Effects Of Bush’s Foreign Policies Essay It is not without reason that analysts and scholars alike find Bush’s foreign policy to be alienating the united states in the international system and practicing unilateralism when making key international decisions. Key to these policies is what has come to be referred to as â€Å"Bush Doctrine†; this is to denote the nature of President’s Bush dominant policy adopted after the occurrences of the September 11, 2001. Many admit that U. S foreign policy changed dramatically after that attack, assuming isolationism, a radical shift from the key ideals Bush espoused during his campaigns (Brzezinski, Z, 2004) Bush foreign policy during his campaigns was on bedrock of improved relations with the nations in Latin America. However, most of his efforts in both his first and second terms have been taken up by his involvement in the wars; both Iraq and Afghanistan. This whoever is not the only reason he has been receiving criticism. He has overruled and withdrawn from core global initiatives that have put the nation on a collision path with other countries across Europe and Asia. The Kyoto protocol for example is one where the rest the world is united in its criticism for the United States decision to pour cold water on it. Kyoto Protocol is a convention that was aimed at significantly reducing and controlling the amount of greenhouse gases emissions. Despite the fact that the United States is the biggest emitter of these gases, it has been adamant in the protocols ratification. During Presidents Bush reign, the United States has backtracked on the agreement signed thirty years back in 1972 between the country and the Soviet Union. America made that decision in 2002. In making the decision Bush claimed hat the step was necessitated by the need to protect the United States citizens and interests across the world from terrorists and other enemy states (Alterman, E. Mark G. , 2004). It is also in this period that America withdrew from the Ottawa treaty that seeks to ban landmines use or their production. The United States now sits together with China and Russia amongst others that have refused to join in the treaty. This is just but a superficial look of the trend that has been characteristic of Bush foreign policy, a policy that has been under much criticism both within and outside the United states. It is the war on terror that has raised questions over it legitimacy and appropriateness with most in the United States questioning whether President Bush has usurped the authority of the congress in the military engagements abroad. To understand Bush foreign policy, it is important that the analysis be carried out in accordance to the specific region or countries. The United States foreign policy is defined in accordance to the type of a relationship that both states enjoy and how important a country is towards America or the amount of the threat it poses either in trade or security wise. Europe for example continues to enjoy a lukewarm reception from the United States especially over the much criticism and lackluster support given during the Iraq war. A key ally in Europe remains the United Kingdom especially in the reign of Tony Blair as the Prime Minister (Dalby, Simon, 2005). Interestingly though is Bush focus on the African continent more than any sitting president in the white house. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief is for example a program initiated by President Bush with an intention of reducing the prevalence rate and the impact of the AIDS scourge across Africa especially in the sub-Saharan region. This remains the hallmark of Bush administration-accomplishments in Africa, with most analysts saying it is a legacy building venture. These, together with Doha round talks. President Bush is still contending with the challenges that his policies are producing. The relation with China is one such headache. Prior to his election, Bush had vowed to introduce a foreign policy that would be a radical shift from his predecessor president Bill Clinton, on the United States relationship with China, saying that he would consider China as a competitor. The recent decades have seen China grow and emerge from an abyss of unknown to become a global player and a great threat to the United States. Both these nations appear to be on a clashing course, trading accusations and counter accusations. The issues at hand have centered on the intellectual property rights with the Bush administration accusing Beijing of violating the IPR of American companies. The U. S has also accused China on its human rights record. Notable however has been the cordial relations that the Bush administration and the Chinese government have enjoyed over the past years though underneath they are both very weary of each other and cautious. Under Bush’s rule, positively though, both countries have been moving towards improved cooperation with most in the United States acknowledging the massive threat posed to the nation by one of the fastest growing economy in the world. With the Korean nuclear headache in mind, Bush has had no choice than to initiate cooperation with China. In fact many attribute the current economic woes in America to the stiff competition from China. None however has received the largest portion of Bush in terms of attention than the Middle East. It has remained a region that has witnessed a downfall to his popularity ratings in the United States and across the world. His focus in the Middle East kicked off in earnest after the September 11th attack and war on terror officially commenced after he launched a military strike against the Taliban in Afghanistan and installed in administration friendly to the United States interests. He also initiated a massive hunt for Osama Bin Laden the Al Qaeda leader but still has not paid off yet. Following on the steps of Bill Clinton who signed the Iraqi Liberation Act, President Bush launched a much-criticized war against Saddam Hussein that succeeded in his removal and execution. Prior to attacking Iraq, Bush had tried to convince the Security Council to pass a resolution that would compel Iraq to allow inspectors and initiate a full process of disarmament. It is against this backdrop that Bush went on and ordered a strike starting a war hat has continued to paint him in a bad light. This remains a glaring dent to his presidency. Since the days of President Richard Nixon and President Lyndon Johnson, never has the history of the United States witnessed public out roar over the nation’s foreign policy like it has seen since 2001. Where initially analysts and the public were supportive of the war believing the strikes against terror would be quick and decisive, as Bush had made people to believe, this support as years went by turned into consternation and apprehension. Bush is simply not getting enough and wanted a shot at Iraq misleading the congress that there were weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and that Iraq posed a serious threat to the United States. He committed troops to Iraq in one of the most costly war the United States has ever seen, costly in terms of financial expenses and public morale. Both combined the Iraq and Afghanistan wars have cost the United States over three hundred and fifty billion dollars at the moment and more is lined up by the congressional budge. This much against growing resentment at home and skepticism over where the war in Afghanistan and Iraq has made the nation safer. Political and economic advisors together with prominent policy advisors have admitted that this spending in the war is to blame for the fiscal and monetary crisis facing the country. There is a backlash in the United States economy. Senator Chuck Hagel from Nebraska admitted that the war spending have gone way above the prior tentative projections. Putting it candidly, he said Bush was out of touch with the reality. The economic recession in the United States is real. Whereas the current economic wars facing the United States cannot be fully attributed to the war in middle east, as there are many factors in the international system that have contributed to this, the ineptitude of Bush foreign policy has had a role to play, as some analysts concede. Bush has been unable to combine his ambitious plan in foreign policy with tenable fiscal and monetary strategies to ensure the economy survives the international shocks. The worst critics of Bush foreign policy and spending are the democrats who justifiably have criticized Bush administration plans to cover the deficit in the war budget with appropriation outside the budget instead of cutting at on non priority government projects. It was fool handy for Bush to go it alone in the Iraq war as it is the taxpayers who have to shoulder the costs unlike in the gulf war where senior Bush was able to convince allies to chip in. more so, Bush senior’s invasion of Iraq to liberate Kuwait was more justified and he also had the publics support (Ambrosias, Lloyd E. , 2006). Bush’s ‘lone ranger’ foreign policies are hurting the country more than he or his strategists are willing to admit. First of all Bush has altered keys ideals of the international system in which the Americans corporations survive. Most of the United States foreign investments are located in Europe and pacific. The U. S put the relations between the United States and these two key regions at jeopardy by the U. S unilateralist. The France and Germany diplomatic rows on the justification of the Iraq war may have been just but a tip of the iceberg (Carter, Graydon, 2004). Bush foreign policies have made it clear that the United States is a lone ranger and would go at whatever cost to protect its interests, the opinion of other key players in the international system not withstanding. This is fast eroding the cordial relations that existed before. The trade policies are a good example to this; with a single stroke he introduced tariffs on trade hurting the revenue of hundreds of companies. The cost of the war is huge and some analysts are accusing Bush administration of under estimating the figure. Joseph Stiglitz an economic strategist and a Nobel prize winner in his book â€Å"The three trillion dollar war† claims that president Bush is largely misrepresenting the figures. President Bush has maintained that the war in Iraq cannot be possibly the cause of the economic slump experienced in the United States; rather it is the prevailing economic conditions. Bush went ahead and said in retrospect, the war has created jobs and the need for more manufacturer and supplies from the United States companies. His argument, Joseph Stiglitz, argues is based on a traditional thought that the war is good for the economy as it lead to an expansion of the economy. This is a belief that economists no longer share. The economy is slumping because the federal government in its bid to correct the situation introduced liquidity and people have taken to debts to finance their expeditions. The oil prices have soared and are leaving the country with huge debts especially from the Middle East. A poll that has been conducted lately found that majority of the Americans believes that the war in Iraq has been having profound impact on the economy. Seventy percent of those polled believe that Bush war is to blame; this is contrary to what president Bush thinks is the cause. To him, the economic recession is caused by people building too â€Å"many houses† (Carter, Graydon, 2004). The economic cost of the war aside, the magnitude of the loss is discouraging coupled with other negative effects the Bush foreign policies are having on the pubic psyche. The turn around made by the Bush administration after the September 11th attack has played a great deal in demonizing people along religious lives. Bush has succeeded in orchestrating a campaign that has crated a negative perception towards Muslims not only in the clutter stakes but also worldwide. Muslims in America are viewed as extremists waiting to blow up bombs, a dangerous perception indeed that has altered how people relate with each other. Analysts claim that such kind of perception and open hatred policies against Muslims could further fuel the urge towards extremism. His immigration policies are also having a profound effect on Americans social life and corporation’s profits. Big corporations in the United States have been surviving on labor drawn from immigrants, as it is cheap. The tough measure taken by the Bush administration has compounded this and the corporations are already feeling the pinch. It has become increasingly difficult for immigrants to settle in the United States and worse still there are talks of deporting the illegal immigrants already in the United States. This is as a result of a generalized belief that the immigrants could play a great role in stalling progress in the anti-terror wars at home (Dalby, Simon, 2005). The international standing of the United States has largely been dented. The Bush foreign policy continues to create an image of arrogance and unilateralism. It has exhibited rogue and brutish tendencies that has made the world wary of its relations. Bush stand after the September 11th attack that posited that there was no middle ground on the war on terror -you are either with us or against us- risk isolating the United States from the rest of the world and putting its interests world wide at a great security risk. A recent opinion poll has indicated the image of the United States has declined greatly since 2003 after the commencing of the search to the elusive weapons. Its stand as a moral police has been questioned greatly. Major protests held worldwide and specifically in the countries considered to be U. S allies traditionally like Germany is a great indicator of this. U. S reputation in the Middle East has taken a great stride backwards and countries have become soft targets for terrorists for associating with America (Ivo H. D. James M. L. , 2005). President George Bush since his election in 2000 has introduced a foreign policy that has largely contributed in isolating the United States from the rest of the world. His tenure in office has seen him wage two wars and other foreign policies that have been blamed by many to be the cause of the ongoing economic recession. The unemployment rate is at 46 percent and the Americans are feeling the pinch. The international standing of the nation has been jeopardized by the involvement in the illegitimate war and gross abuse of the rights of the suspected terrorists both at home and abroad A shift in policy is needed with the United States embracing multilateralism especially regarding serious issues like terrorism. Huge costs of war can also be avoided through political settlements. References Alterman, Eric and Mark Green, 2004. The Book on Bush: How George W. Bush (Mis) Leads America. New York: Viking Press. Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 2004. The Choice: Global Domination or Global Leadership. New York: Basic Books. Carter, Graydon, 2004. What We’ve Lost: How the Bush Administration Has Curtailed Our Freedoms, Mortgaged Our Economy, Ravaged Our Environment, and Damaged Our Standing in the World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Bivens, Ph. D. , L. Josh, December 14, 2004. Debt and Dollar. Economic Policy Institute. Dalby, Simon, 2005. Geopolitics, Grand Strategy, and the Bush Doctrine. Institute of Defense and Strategic Studies Working Papers Ambrosias, Lloyd E. , 2006. â€Å"Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,† Diplomatic History. Britton, Gregory, 2006. â€Å"September 11, American ‘Exceptionalism’, and the War in Iraq,† Australasian Journal of American Studies. Ivo H. Daalder James M. Lindsay, 2005. America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy.

Developing a Professional Identity as a Teacher

Developing a Professional Identity as a Teacher To me, motivation is the first and foremost driven force for a teacher to develop professional identity. If a person does not have the ambition for a profession, it is easy to drop the struggle in vein. Motivation can persist in form of altruistic, intrinsic, extrinsic reasons or combination of all among teachers to choose teaching as a profession. In an explanatory way, altruistic reasons: deal with seeing teaching as a socially worthwhile and important job, a desire to help children succeed and a desire to help society improve (Coulthard, 2000, p. 117, as cited in Thomson, Turner, Nietfeld, 2011). On another hand, intrinsic motivation is doing an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequences. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is defined as doing an activity for the attainment of a separable outcome (Deci Ryan, 2000, p. 56, as cited in Thomson, Turner, Nietfeld, 2011). Vanessa, Early Childhood Teacher concluded that, passion to work with child ren and inspiration from teachers with whom she had worked or who shaped her educational degrees are the reasons to build an aspiration in her to choose teaching. To build a different bonding with the children and their parents along with an aim to keep the children the way they are have become the eternal visions to make a different difference in teaching sector, according to Vanessa (Vanessa, February,2015). On another note, Christine, Secondary School Teacher argued that, even though teaching was never a chosen profession beforehand, gradual interaction with learners in special education sector triggered herself to join teaching later on. Even though initially teaching was a platform to expose own creativity through making lesson plans or content structure, on the long way to journey, teaching had become synonymous of love for the students. To her, it is the best to become a mentor to show guidance being with them instead of having a superior position over them and this is how a teachers professional identity must develop by providing a sense of belongingness (Christine,February, 2015). So, visibly through the lens of shared experiences, for Vanessa, altruistic and intrinsic motivation have interplayed successfully where she held a desire to benefit children alongside the self-less affection for teaching, as a profession whereas in Christine, Intrinsic motivation made her heart placed into teaching. However, followed by motivation in the row second comes experience which is kind of an aspect, never to devalue in anyway. Experience which emends the professional identity of a teacher over time through increased knowledge and practice. It is the proficient journey which enacts professionalism of a person over others in a row. As a result of experience, teachers seem to have developed rich, well-organized knowledge bases that enable them to draw readily on their past experiences (Calderhead, 1996, as cited in Beijaard, Verloop, Vermunt, 1999 ). In this regard, arising frequent questions, taking risks, listening to the unheard sayings of children, and most importantly developing a relationship with colleagues to learn better are few steps to brighten as a pre-service teacher Christine (February, 2015). And these precious responses cannot be retrieved from anyone except having a profound professional identity enriched with experiences of trials and errors. This are experiences which help the teacher to realize which teaching methods will be useful or what content should be modified to feed the learners need efficiently. And also, the perk of experience lies in the fact that anyone can use experiences related to other aspects of life in teaching whenever needed and it is visible when Christine concluded that she had used problem solving skills of another course into her English teaching lessons. Another finding reveals that the experiences the participants had and the people they met during the teaching practice period were vital in shaping the way they valued themselves, including their commitment, motivation and the satisfaction of becoming a trainee teacher(Khalid, 2014). Learning theories shape the nature of learning, hence comes teaching. Teachers need to try, practice, and amend different theories of learning to finalize which suits the best for proper learning of the students since profound teaching is theory driven. Vanessa(February,2015) argues that Sociocultural frame of learning theory has made difference in her teaching because of which she turned out to be more accessible to childrens families than before; such theory complied her understanding of learning which is relational to the background of a student along with several other factors and materials of teaching itself. It had become easier for her to teach when her learners became more aware of their social and cultural existence where they belong to. Likewise, different learning theories may tailor the classroom teaching for another teacher. For example, Christine(February,2015) points out that Vygotskys theory has helped her to recognize her students individual goals to assess where the y are at present and where they need to be by moving forward. It has given her a wisdom of evaluating her learners along with summative and formative assessment of having personal conversations with them to recognize their skill levels. On a beneficial note, it helped to compare between where the students thought they were and where she thought they were and making further changes accordingly. Pedagogy is an umbrella term under which factors of different paradigms exist each of which are equally a necessity to develop a professional identity of an educator. It is the quality of pedagogy that most directly and most powerfully affects the quality of learning (Department of Education and Training [NSW] 2003, p. 4, as cited in Moss, 2016, p. 38). It vastly is a combination of how to teach and what to teach to the learners which determines the professional identity of a learner severely. It variably also includes physical and emotional environment in the class, class rules and discourse of the class, structure of groups works or working as groups (Nirenjan, 2017). In this regard, collaborative pedagogy helps to determine class rules which can lead to consistent discipline by providing dignity and respect to everyone to ensure social environment of a class by assuring proper class culture.

Racism Or Slavery Essay -- essays research papers fc

Racism or Slavery, which came first?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Racism or slavery, neither, this essay will document the prejudice against Africans from Europeans that led into slavery and racism. Prejudice issues in a dislike for an individual or group of these individuals. This dislike can simulate from many differences that are shared, religion, culture, system of living (government and social practice), or in some cases looks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Initially English contact with Africans did not take place primarily in a context which prejudged the Negro as a slave, at least not as a slave of Englishmen. Rather, Englishmen met Africans merely as another sort of men. Englishmen found the peoples of Africa very different form themselves. â€Å"Negroes† looked different to Englishmen; their religion was un-Christian; they seemed to be very libidinous people (Jordan, 1).† In this example Winthrop Jordan begins to target the differences that Englishmen seen and identified with from themselves and the Africans. Pointing out an area that differed, which to the Englishmen mirrored the souls and morals of the Africans, religion. Prejudice begins with difference. â€Å"For Englishmen, the most arresting characteristic of the newly discovered African was his color. Travelers rarely failed to comment upon it; indeed when describing Africans they frequently began with complexion and then moved on to dress (or, as they saw, lack of it) and manners (Jordan 1).† And entering in a river, we see a number of blacke soules, Whose likelinesse seem’d men to be, but all as blacke as coles. Their Captaine comes to me as naked as my naile, Not having witte or honestie to cover once his taile. Robert Baker Jordan and Baker begin to show the Englishmen dislike for the African choice of dress and complexion. Baker includes that African people skin tone embodies their souls, having negativity in them by nature of being black, adds having neither wit nor honesty. â€Å"Englishmen actually described Negroes as black-an exaggerated term which in itself suggest that the Negro’s complexion had powerful impact upon their perceptions (Jordan, 1).† Black- deeply stained with dirt, soiled, dirty, foul†¦Having dark or deadly purposes, malignant; pertaining to or involving death, deadly; baneful, disastrous, sinister†¦Foul, iniquitous, atrocious, horrible, wicked†¦ Indicating disgrace, censu... ...As slavery evolved as a legal status, it reflected and included as part of its essence, this same discrimination which white men had practiced against the Negro all along and before any statutes decreed it.† Degler Prejudice was present, before slavery came about, when Englishmen first encountered Africans, the differences between the two, combined with the English push to turn the world English. â€Å"As England had absorbed people of every nationality over the centuries and turned them into Englishmen, including Negroes, and seemed to be successfully moulding a New World community on the English model (Morgan, 2).† Morgan shows English outlook and attitude towards anyone not English. All non-English people are automatically inferior in some degree. A prejudice existing in a group, before control is gained, and prejudice enforced. Works Cited (1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jordan, Wintrop. â€Å"First Impressions: Libidinous Blacks,† White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812, 1968, University of North Carolina Press. (2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Morgan, Edmund S., â€Å"The Paradox of Slavery and Freedom,† Journal of American History, 59, 1972, 5-29 Racism Or Slavery Essay -- essays research papers fc Racism or Slavery, which came first?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Racism or slavery, neither, this essay will document the prejudice against Africans from Europeans that led into slavery and racism. Prejudice issues in a dislike for an individual or group of these individuals. This dislike can simulate from many differences that are shared, religion, culture, system of living (government and social practice), or in some cases looks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Initially English contact with Africans did not take place primarily in a context which prejudged the Negro as a slave, at least not as a slave of Englishmen. Rather, Englishmen met Africans merely as another sort of men. Englishmen found the peoples of Africa very different form themselves. â€Å"Negroes† looked different to Englishmen; their religion was un-Christian; they seemed to be very libidinous people (Jordan, 1).† In this example Winthrop Jordan begins to target the differences that Englishmen seen and identified with from themselves and the Africans. Pointing out an area that differed, which to the Englishmen mirrored the souls and morals of the Africans, religion. Prejudice begins with difference. â€Å"For Englishmen, the most arresting characteristic of the newly discovered African was his color. Travelers rarely failed to comment upon it; indeed when describing Africans they frequently began with complexion and then moved on to dress (or, as they saw, lack of it) and manners (Jordan 1).† And entering in a river, we see a number of blacke soules, Whose likelinesse seem’d men to be, but all as blacke as coles. Their Captaine comes to me as naked as my naile, Not having witte or honestie to cover once his taile. Robert Baker Jordan and Baker begin to show the Englishmen dislike for the African choice of dress and complexion. Baker includes that African people skin tone embodies their souls, having negativity in them by nature of being black, adds having neither wit nor honesty. â€Å"Englishmen actually described Negroes as black-an exaggerated term which in itself suggest that the Negro’s complexion had powerful impact upon their perceptions (Jordan, 1).† Black- deeply stained with dirt, soiled, dirty, foul†¦Having dark or deadly purposes, malignant; pertaining to or involving death, deadly; baneful, disastrous, sinister†¦Foul, iniquitous, atrocious, horrible, wicked†¦ Indicating disgrace, censu... ...As slavery evolved as a legal status, it reflected and included as part of its essence, this same discrimination which white men had practiced against the Negro all along and before any statutes decreed it.† Degler Prejudice was present, before slavery came about, when Englishmen first encountered Africans, the differences between the two, combined with the English push to turn the world English. â€Å"As England had absorbed people of every nationality over the centuries and turned them into Englishmen, including Negroes, and seemed to be successfully moulding a New World community on the English model (Morgan, 2).† Morgan shows English outlook and attitude towards anyone not English. All non-English people are automatically inferior in some degree. A prejudice existing in a group, before control is gained, and prejudice enforced. Works Cited (1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jordan, Wintrop. â€Å"First Impressions: Libidinous Blacks,† White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812, 1968, University of North Carolina Press. (2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Morgan, Edmund S., â€Å"The Paradox of Slavery and Freedom,† Journal of American History, 59, 1972, 5-29

The History of Computers :: Technology Technological Computers Essays

The History of Computers The idea of a machine that would make man’s calculations easier, faster, and more accurate is no new notion. The Abacus, â€Å"Napier’s rods†, the â€Å"Calculating Clock†, and the â€Å"Stepped Reckoner† are a few examples of early computer ideas In the more recent history of the computer, we can see how computers have morphed (or dwarfed) from clunky, million-dollar machines into the compact and convenient parts of our everyday lives (Computer Science Student Resource Website, 2003, â€Å"Evolution of Computers: From Stone to Silicon†, Section 1). The Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology informs us that John von Neumann’s name is most well-known among the potential â€Å"founders† of the first computer, but to whom the credit belongs can be debated†¦von Neumann wrote a memorandum explaining the ENIAC, and thus his name is recorded (Academic Press, 2002, Section 2, â€Å"Historical Perspective†). The ENIAC (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was developed by J. Preper Eckert and John Mauchly of the Moore School of the University of Pennsylvania in the mid-1940s. The credit for this â€Å"invention† is â€Å"shady† because Mauchly reportedly visited John Atanasoff before building the ENIAC. Atanasoff and his graduate student Berry built the Atanasoff/Berry Computer in the early 1940s at Iowa State University. At any rate, von Neumann’s name is the most well-known and thus settles the issue! The model von Neumann came up with for the basic computer structure is still today, with modifications for speed and size, the foundation for many computers (Academic Press, 2002, Section 1, p. 527). The Academic Press Dictionary states that von Neumann’s report was so well-received because it had incredible â€Å"focus on the logical principles and organization of the computer rather than on the electrical and electronic technology required for its implementation† (p. 527). As â€Å"Evolution: From Stone to Silicon† reports, the first computers were mechanical and used vacuum tubes. These tubes needed to be replaced constantly (Computer Science Student Resource Website, 2003, Section 3). The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) invented in 1952 used magnetic tape, a revolution from the mess of wires that needed to be moved and replaced to run new programs.